It is said that the sage Agastya crossed the Vindhyas
in the later Vedic age to aryanise the south.
. The Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras or Keralaputras men
''ti:oned in the Asokan inscriptions probably represented
the late megalithic culture.
.' Iraiyanar Agoporul makes the earliest reference to the
Sangams.
. The Sangam literature was compiled in circa AD 300-600,
but it discusses the conditions of South India in Be 200
AD 300.
. Tolkappiyam, the early Tamil grammar, was written in
second Sangam.
. Tirukkural is sometimes called the "Bible of the Tamil
Land".
. Silappadikaram was authored by Ilangovadigal, while
Manimegalai is attributed to the poet Sattan of Madurai. . The Pandyas were mentioned by Megasthenes. . The Chola kingdom in the Sangam Age was situated
between the Pennar and Velar rivers.
. Uraiyur in the Chola kingdom was famous for cotton
trade.
. Karikala, the famous Chola ruler in the Sangam Age,
founded the city of Puhar (Kaveripattanam) and made
it his capital.
. Senguttuvan, the Red or Good Chera, was the greatest
Chera king.
. The Romans, with whom the Cheras had a flourishing
trade, set up two regiments at Muziris (identical with
Cranganore) and built a temple of Augustus there. . In the Sangam Age, land tax was called karai and war
booty was called irai.
. Spices (especially pepper), ivory, pearls, precious stones
and cloth were major items of export of South India
during Sangam Age.
. The ur was a town, pattanam a coastal town, and puhar
a harbour area.
. In the Sangam age, vellalars were rich peasants and
kadaisiyar represented the lowest class.
. Murugan was the chief local god worshipped by the
people of the hilly region. Murugan later came to be
called Subramaniya.
. During Nedumudikilli's rule, the Chola capital, Puhar,
was plundered by sea pirates.
. Nedunjelian, who ruled around AD 240, was the most
prominent of the early Pandyas.
. There were three Sangams: first at Thenmadurai (South
Madurai), the second at Kabadapuram, and the third at
Madurai.
. Caste distinctions were lacking in the Sangam age and
untouchability was not prevalent.
. Puhar or Kaveripattanam (of the Cholas) and Arikamedu and Koshai (of the Pandyas) were major post-towns on the east coast, while Muziris and Tyndis (of the Cheras), Bakare and Neleyndu were important trade centres on the west coast.
. There were three different kinds of chiefdoms in the Sangam Age: (i) kizar (little chiefs, i.e., the headmen of small villages); (ii) velir (bigger chiefs, mostly hill chieftains), and (iii) vedar (the biggest chiefs).
. Narasimhavarman I was the brightest of the Pallava kings in the seventh century AD. He founded the city of Mahabalipuram. His greatest achievement was the three successive triumphs over the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II.
. Narasimhavarman II is credited with the building of the
famous Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi.
. Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan-Tsang, visited Kanchi, the Pallava
capital, during the reign of Narasimhavarman I.
. The Pallava kingdom was annexed by the Chola ruler,
Aditya I in the late ninth century. The Cholas were
feudatories of the Pallavas.
Saturday, November 28, 2009
LITERATURE and RELIGION
LITERATURE Literary works in Sanskrit continued to be written. Some of these works had their counterparts ih Tamil, where the models of literary composition were now taken largely from Sanskrit literature. But Tamil literature of this period shows great liveliness and vigour as in Kamban's version of the Ramayana or the works of Kuttan,
Pugalendi, Jayangondur and Kalladanar. The branching off of regional languages from Sanskrit took place throughout the peninsula.
RELIGION The parting of the ways of Sanskrit and the regional languages is reflected in religion. Sanskrit remained the language of Hindu theology and of the brahmans. It was also more widely used now by the Buddhists and Jainas, whose numbers were on the decrease. Buddhism practically disappeared by the end of this period, the Buddha being commonly accepted as an incarnation of Vishnu, buLJainism survived with a following in Mysore.
Pugalendi, Jayangondur and Kalladanar. The branching off of regional languages from Sanskrit took place throughout the peninsula.
RELIGION The parting of the ways of Sanskrit and the regional languages is reflected in religion. Sanskrit remained the language of Hindu theology and of the brahmans. It was also more widely used now by the Buddhists and Jainas, whose numbers were on the decrease. Buddhism practically disappeared by the end of this period, the Buddha being commonly accepted as an incarnation of Vishnu, buLJainism survived with a following in Mysore.
SOCIETY
SOCIETY According to Romila Thapar, the centre of social and economic life at the time, particularly in the rural areas, was the temple. Devadasis were commonly found in most temples in Chola times.
Caste-consciousness had become prominent in social relationships. The brahmans maintained a distinctness, but unlike the north Indian brahman landowners, the southern brahmans were more adventurous. Their surplus income went into commerce. Slavery was common, but the use of slave labour for large-scale production was not known. The society was mainly divided into brahmans and nonbrahmans. Among the non-brahmans there is, as compared to North India, little mention of. kshatriyas and vaishyas but the shudras are prominent. The brahmans were in control of the powerful positions and the non-brahmans were more or less working for them. Amongst the intermediary castes the distinctions were perhaps not so rigid.
The temple continued to be the centre of formal education in Sanskrit, with colleges attached to the larger temples. Some of these colleges were those at Ennayiram, Tribhuvani, TIruvaduturai, and Tiruvorriyur. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit almost to the exclusion of Tamil, and so formal education, and the life of most students attending the colleges, became cut off from everyday life. Professional education continued to be maintained through training given to apprentices in guilds and among groups of artisans. However, oral instruction, much simpler than the Sanskrit learning of the colleges, was imparted through the medium of the Saivite and Vaishnavite hymns composed by the Tamil saints.
Caste-consciousness had become prominent in social relationships. The brahmans maintained a distinctness, but unlike the north Indian brahman landowners, the southern brahmans were more adventurous. Their surplus income went into commerce. Slavery was common, but the use of slave labour for large-scale production was not known. The society was mainly divided into brahmans and nonbrahmans. Among the non-brahmans there is, as compared to North India, little mention of. kshatriyas and vaishyas but the shudras are prominent. The brahmans were in control of the powerful positions and the non-brahmans were more or less working for them. Amongst the intermediary castes the distinctions were perhaps not so rigid.
The temple continued to be the centre of formal education in Sanskrit, with colleges attached to the larger temples. Some of these colleges were those at Ennayiram, Tribhuvani, TIruvaduturai, and Tiruvorriyur. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit almost to the exclusion of Tamil, and so formal education, and the life of most students attending the colleges, became cut off from everyday life. Professional education continued to be maintained through training given to apprentices in guilds and among groups of artisans. However, oral instruction, much simpler than the Sanskrit learning of the colleges, was imparted through the medium of the Saivite and Vaishnavite hymns composed by the Tamil saints.
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
During the early part of this period the village was economically self-suffici~nt and the tendency to hoard wealth was not a characteristic. The village provided its own food and clothing and had enough craftsmen to
attend to its needs. No large-scale surplus was produced and therefore no exchange of any appreciable amount took place with other areas. This changed with the rapid development of towns from the eleventh century onwards, consequent to the rapid expansion of trade during the Chola period. The existence of towns demanded a surplus production of food and introduced a morletary system to the rural economy. There is a marked increase in the number of Chola coins at this time as compared to the earlier times.
Overseas trade was the strength of the Chola merchants. Mahabalipuram, Kaveripattanam, Shaliyur, and Korkai on the east coast and Quilon on the Malabar coast had elaborate establishments controlling the South Indian trade both westwards and eastwards. Persia and Arabia were the destinations of those trading with the West. Trade with China reached an unprecedented volume during these centuries. Trade was controlled by merchant guilds. The king and the higher officials of state invested in the guilds.
During the early part of this period the village was economically self-suffici~nt and the tendency to hoard wealth was not a characteristic. The village provided its own food and clothing and had enough craftsmen to
attend to its needs. No large-scale surplus was produced and therefore no exchange of any appreciable amount took place with other areas. This changed with the rapid development of towns from the eleventh century onwards, consequent to the rapid expansion of trade during the Chola period. The existence of towns demanded a surplus production of food and introduced a morletary system to the rural economy. There is a marked increase in the number of Chola coins at this time as compared to the earlier times.
Overseas trade was the strength of the Chola merchants. Mahabalipuram, Kaveripattanam, Shaliyur, and Korkai on the east coast and Quilon on the Malabar coast had elaborate establishments controlling the South Indian trade both westwards and eastwards. Persia and Arabia were the destinations of those trading with the West. Trade with China reached an unprecedented volume during these centuries. Trade was controlled by merchant guilds. The king and the higher officials of state invested in the guilds.
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
The autonomous villa~ councilor local self-government was the most importaJ characteristic of Chola administration. Two Uttaramen inscriptions of Parantaka I dated AD 919 and 929 provid invaluable information regarding these councils. Accordin to these- inscriptions, the following three types of assembliE played a regular part in local administration.
(i) Ur The ur was the commoner type of assembly (! common villages. The land in ur was held by all classe of people. Hence all members of the village could becom the member of ur.
(ii) Sabha It was an exclusively brahman assembly of the brahmadeya villages. All the land in sabha belonged to the brahmans.
(iii) Nagaram It was an assembly of merchants and belonged to localities where traders and merchants were dominant.
A person had to fulfil the following criteria to secure the membership of sabha: (a) ownership of more than onefourth veli-about an acre and a half-of land; (b) residence in a house built on one's own land; (c) age between 35 and 70; and (d) knowledge of Vedic literature (or one-eighth veli of land and knowledge of one Veda and a Bhashya).
Members were nominated for three years on the basis of secret ballot. One-third of the members would retire after every two years. Their major responsibilities included land distribution, tax collection, irrigation facilities, etc.
Important functions of local administration were entrusted to committees of 6 to 12 members according to importance of their functions. This was called the variyam system. Important variyams/committees included (i) tottavariyam (garden committee); (ii) eri-variyam (tank committee); (iii) panchavara variyam (a standing committee); (iv) pan variyam (gold committee); and (v) samvatsara variyam (annual committee).
The members of the committee were called variyapperumakkal. They usually met in the village temple. We have no information about voting and quorum. The assembly discussed general questions and passed resolutions.
The autonomous villa~ councilor local self-government was the most importaJ characteristic of Chola administration. Two Uttaramen inscriptions of Parantaka I dated AD 919 and 929 provid invaluable information regarding these councils. Accordin to these- inscriptions, the following three types of assembliE played a regular part in local administration.
(i) Ur The ur was the commoner type of assembly (! common villages. The land in ur was held by all classe of people. Hence all members of the village could becom the member of ur.
(ii) Sabha It was an exclusively brahman assembly of the brahmadeya villages. All the land in sabha belonged to the brahmans.
(iii) Nagaram It was an assembly of merchants and belonged to localities where traders and merchants were dominant.
A person had to fulfil the following criteria to secure the membership of sabha: (a) ownership of more than onefourth veli-about an acre and a half-of land; (b) residence in a house built on one's own land; (c) age between 35 and 70; and (d) knowledge of Vedic literature (or one-eighth veli of land and knowledge of one Veda and a Bhashya).
Members were nominated for three years on the basis of secret ballot. One-third of the members would retire after every two years. Their major responsibilities included land distribution, tax collection, irrigation facilities, etc.
Important functions of local administration were entrusted to committees of 6 to 12 members according to importance of their functions. This was called the variyam system. Important variyams/committees included (i) tottavariyam (garden committee); (ii) eri-variyam (tank committee); (iii) panchavara variyam (a standing committee); (iv) pan variyam (gold committee); and (v) samvatsara variyam (annual committee).
The members of the committee were called variyapperumakkal. They usually met in the village temple. We have no information about voting and quorum. The assembly discussed general questions and passed resolutions.
CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
CHOLA ADMINISTRATION
The dominant form of government under the Cholas was hereditary monarchy. The coronation was an important and impressive ceremony and an occasion of great liberality. Succession disputes were not unknown, but generally the rule of succession in the eldest male line was respected, and the choice of the yuvaraja during the lifetime of the reigning monarch din ished the chances of dispute.
Rajaraja I initiated the system of prefacing the sb inscriptions of the reign with an account in set terIru its chief events kept up-to-date by additions from timE time. The relations between an emperor and his feudatol varied with time and circumstances. The administratior the Chola empire was stricter and more centralised tI that of the Chalukyas. Princes of the royal family were of employed as viceroys over important sections of the emp The royal household comprised numerous servanu
varied descriptions including bodyguards of sorts coronation hall and kitchen establishments comprised mo! women. The palace servants of the Cholas were orgcuili into velams and settled in separate quarters in the capito The monarch disposed off business by oral orders 1 an elaborate procedure was observed both before securi them and in putting them into execution. The Ch monarch had an udankuttam, immediate attendants, a gro of ministers representing all the chief departments administration to advise him on the disposal of businE besides a chancery (olai). (There were corresponding 0 cials in the Chalukya court.)
The Chola administrative machinery was an elabori and complicated bureaucracy comprising officials of v~ ous grades. The officials tended to form a separate cl;
in society, organised in two ranks, an upper perundanam a a lower sirudanam. Offices tended to become hereditary a there was no clear distinction between civil and milit~ employment. The officials were often remunerated by . signments of land (jivitas) suited to their station. Titles honour and shares in booty taken in war formed oft rewards of public service.
For purposes of administration the empire was divid into convenient areas with lower subdivisions, the divisio in descending order being valanadu or mandalam, nadu aJ ku"am. Large townships formed a separate ku"am j themselves, being known as taniyur or tanku"am.
All land was carefully surveyed and classified into ta bearing and non-taxable lands. The village as a whole w responsible for the payment of the entire revenue due fro it to the king's officers. The revenue was collected in ca:
or kind according to convenience. Besides land revenu there were tolls on goods in transit, taxes on professiol and houses, dues levied on ceremonial occasions 1iI marriages, and judicial fines.
Justice was administered by regularly constituted roy courts in addition to village courts and caste panchayal Usage, documents and witnesses were admitted as ev dence. Trial by ordeal was also resorted to.
The dominant form of government under the Cholas was hereditary monarchy. The coronation was an important and impressive ceremony and an occasion of great liberality. Succession disputes were not unknown, but generally the rule of succession in the eldest male line was respected, and the choice of the yuvaraja during the lifetime of the reigning monarch din ished the chances of dispute.
Rajaraja I initiated the system of prefacing the sb inscriptions of the reign with an account in set terIru its chief events kept up-to-date by additions from timE time. The relations between an emperor and his feudatol varied with time and circumstances. The administratior the Chola empire was stricter and more centralised tI that of the Chalukyas. Princes of the royal family were of employed as viceroys over important sections of the emp The royal household comprised numerous servanu
varied descriptions including bodyguards of sorts coronation hall and kitchen establishments comprised mo! women. The palace servants of the Cholas were orgcuili into velams and settled in separate quarters in the capito The monarch disposed off business by oral orders 1 an elaborate procedure was observed both before securi them and in putting them into execution. The Ch monarch had an udankuttam, immediate attendants, a gro of ministers representing all the chief departments administration to advise him on the disposal of businE besides a chancery (olai). (There were corresponding 0 cials in the Chalukya court.)
The Chola administrative machinery was an elabori and complicated bureaucracy comprising officials of v~ ous grades. The officials tended to form a separate cl;
in society, organised in two ranks, an upper perundanam a a lower sirudanam. Offices tended to become hereditary a there was no clear distinction between civil and milit~ employment. The officials were often remunerated by . signments of land (jivitas) suited to their station. Titles honour and shares in booty taken in war formed oft rewards of public service.
For purposes of administration the empire was divid into convenient areas with lower subdivisions, the divisio in descending order being valanadu or mandalam, nadu aJ ku"am. Large townships formed a separate ku"am j themselves, being known as taniyur or tanku"am.
All land was carefully surveyed and classified into ta bearing and non-taxable lands. The village as a whole w responsible for the payment of the entire revenue due fro it to the king's officers. The revenue was collected in ca:
or kind according to convenience. Besides land revenu there were tolls on goods in transit, taxes on professiol and houses, dues levied on ceremonial occasions 1iI marriages, and judicial fines.
Justice was administered by regularly constituted roy courts in addition to village courts and caste panchayal Usage, documents and witnesses were admitted as ev dence. Trial by ordeal was also resorted to.
THE IMPERIAL CHOLAS
THE IMPERIAL CHOLAS
The emergence of Chola power from obscurity, its rise to an imperial position and its conflicts, first with the Rashtrakutas from beyond the Tungabhadra and later with their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, form the dominant features of the history of South India in the period 850-1200 AD. The whole region south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two
centuries or more.
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850. By the end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya's successor, Aditya I Chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyas, thus bringing the southern Tamil country under his control. In the beginning, the Cholas were hard put to defend their position against the Rashtrakutas, but towards the end of the tenth century Chola power rapidly rose. Parantaka I (907-955) captured Madurai but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III, at the battle of Takkolam, and he lost Tondaimandalam. But his grandson, Sundara-Chola, overcame the Rashtrakuta ruler and wrested Tondaimandalam from him.
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014) and his son, Rajendra 1(1014-1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Thiruvanandapuram, and attacked Quilon. He then captured the Pandy~ capital Madurai, and also annexed the-northern part of Sri- Lanka. One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldive islands. In the north, he annexed the north-western parts of the Ganga region in north-west Kamataka and overran Vengi. His son and successor, Rajendra I, continued with the annexationist policy by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera kingdoms and including them in his empire. He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola rule for another 50 years. Rajendra I also sent an expedition against Bengal through Kalinga; his armies crossed the Ganga and defeated the Pala king, Mihipala, of Bengal and Bihar.
In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda, and founded a capital-Gangaikonda Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire; the expedition led to the conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area for some time.
The Chola rulers fought constantly with the later Chalukyas (of Kalyani), who had succeeded the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, for the overlordship of Vengi (Rayalaseema), the Tungabhadra doab and the Ganga country in north-west Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory in this context and it ultimately exhausted both the empires. However, up to 1115, the' extent of the Chola empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, except for the loss of Ceylon, and included the entire region south of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra extending at least up to the Godavari on the east coast. But after this the empire began to shrink. By 1118, the Chola empire was confined to the Tamil region and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu districts. Kulottunga III (1178-1210) was the last
great Chola monarch, who remained involved in the Pandyan wars of succession and sacked the Pandya capital in 1205.
The Chalukyan empire disappeared at the end of the 12th century and the Chola empire tottered at the beginning of the 13th century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south, and that of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas. For a -century thereafter, the history of South India is the history of these four kingdoms and their mutual antagonisms. Minor powers like the Telugu-Cholas of Nellore played their part as auxiliaries to the chief powers. The period was marked by no striking developments in polity or society, although industry, trade and the arts continued to flourish with their normal vigour. The Muslim invasions of the Deccan which began towards the end of the thirteenth century upset all the four kingdoms and caused a period o( confusion terminated by the rise and expansion of the Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms in the second quarter of the 14th century.
There is not much information about the history of the Chera country during 850-1200. There are inscriptions of the several kings of the ninth century of whom Sthanuravi, a contemporary of Aditya I Chola, was the most important, and the Syrian Christian Kottayam copper plates are associated with him. He was perhaps succeeded by Vijayaragadeva.. Among the kings who followed, Bhaskara Ravivarman (1047-1106) deserves mention. Srivallabhan Kodai and Govardhana Martandavarman of Venad were his contemporaries. Under Rajaraja I Chola and his successors, Chola rule extended over the bulk of Chera country. The region revolted during the troubles preceding the accession of Kulottunga I who reconquered the Chera country and established military colonies in south Chera country. In the twelfth century there are inscriptions of the rulers of Venad, identified with Cheranadu; one of these rulers was conquered by Parantaka Pandya, a feudatory of Vikrama Chola
(1118-35).
The emergence of Chola power from obscurity, its rise to an imperial position and its conflicts, first with the Rashtrakutas from beyond the Tungabhadra and later with their successors, the Chalukyas of Kalyani, form the dominant features of the history of South India in the period 850-1200 AD. The whole region south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two
centuries or more.
The founder of the Chola empire was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850. By the end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya's successor, Aditya I Chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyas, thus bringing the southern Tamil country under his control. In the beginning, the Cholas were hard put to defend their position against the Rashtrakutas, but towards the end of the tenth century Chola power rapidly rose. Parantaka I (907-955) captured Madurai but was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III, at the battle of Takkolam, and he lost Tondaimandalam. But his grandson, Sundara-Chola, overcame the Rashtrakuta ruler and wrested Tondaimandalam from him.
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985-1014) and his son, Rajendra 1(1014-1044). Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Thiruvanandapuram, and attacked Quilon. He then captured the Pandy~ capital Madurai, and also annexed the-northern part of Sri- Lanka. One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the Maldive islands. In the north, he annexed the north-western parts of the Ganga region in north-west Kamataka and overran Vengi. His son and successor, Rajendra I, continued with the annexationist policy by completely overrunning the Pandya and Chera kingdoms and including them in his empire. He also annexed the rest of Sri Lanka which remained under Chola rule for another 50 years. Rajendra I also sent an expedition against Bengal through Kalinga; his armies crossed the Ganga and defeated the Pala king, Mihipala, of Bengal and Bihar.
In commemoration of his victories in the Gangetic delta, he assumed the title Gangaikonda, and founded a capital-Gangaikonda Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire; the expedition led to the conquest of Kadaram or Kedah and a number of other places in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area for some time.
The Chola rulers fought constantly with the later Chalukyas (of Kalyani), who had succeeded the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, for the overlordship of Vengi (Rayalaseema), the Tungabhadra doab and the Ganga country in north-west Karnataka. Neither side was able to gain a decisive victory in this context and it ultimately exhausted both the empires. However, up to 1115, the' extent of the Chola empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, except for the loss of Ceylon, and included the entire region south of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra extending at least up to the Godavari on the east coast. But after this the empire began to shrink. By 1118, the Chola empire was confined to the Tamil region and a relatively small area of the adjoining Telugu districts. Kulottunga III (1178-1210) was the last
great Chola monarch, who remained involved in the Pandyan wars of succession and sacked the Pandya capital in 1205.
The Chalukyan empire disappeared at the end of the 12th century and the Chola empire tottered at the beginning of the 13th century. The place of the Cholas was taken by the Pandyas and the Hoysalas in the south, and that of the later Chalukyas by the Yadavas and the Kakatiyas. For a -century thereafter, the history of South India is the history of these four kingdoms and their mutual antagonisms. Minor powers like the Telugu-Cholas of Nellore played their part as auxiliaries to the chief powers. The period was marked by no striking developments in polity or society, although industry, trade and the arts continued to flourish with their normal vigour. The Muslim invasions of the Deccan which began towards the end of the thirteenth century upset all the four kingdoms and caused a period o( confusion terminated by the rise and expansion of the Bahmani and Vijaynagar kingdoms in the second quarter of the 14th century.
There is not much information about the history of the Chera country during 850-1200. There are inscriptions of the several kings of the ninth century of whom Sthanuravi, a contemporary of Aditya I Chola, was the most important, and the Syrian Christian Kottayam copper plates are associated with him. He was perhaps succeeded by Vijayaragadeva.. Among the kings who followed, Bhaskara Ravivarman (1047-1106) deserves mention. Srivallabhan Kodai and Govardhana Martandavarman of Venad were his contemporaries. Under Rajaraja I Chola and his successors, Chola rule extended over the bulk of Chera country. The region revolted during the troubles preceding the accession of Kulottunga I who reconquered the Chera country and established military colonies in south Chera country. In the twelfth century there are inscriptions of the rulers of Venad, identified with Cheranadu; one of these rulers was conquered by Parantaka Pandya, a feudatory of Vikrama Chola
(1118-35).
PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE
PALLAVA ARCHITECTURE
In the south; the Pallavas bridge the transition from rock architecture to structural stone temples. The credit for having initiated the rockarchitecture in the Pallava country must be given to the royal artist Mahendravarman I. Some of his architectural works are the cave temples on the hill at Mandagappattu, the five-celled cave temple at Pallavaram near Madras, the four cave temples at Mamandur and the Siva temple at Sivamangalam. However, the upper rock-cut cave at Tiruchirapalli is by far the best of Mahendra's creations. Besides these cave temples, dedicated to Siva, a few Vishnu cave temples were also excavated by him, the most important ones being the Mahendravishnugrlha at Mahendravadi and the Ranganatha temple at Srigavaram.
The architecture of the post-Mahendra period is found in the port town of Mamallapuram (or Mahabalipuram) at the mouth of the Palar river. The monuments at Mamallapuram can be grouped into (a) cut-in cave temples, (b) cut-out monolithic temples, and (c) structural temples. Famous among these temples are the Pancha Pandava cave temples and the Pancha Pandava rathas. 'The Descent of the Ganga' or ' Arjuna's Penance' are virtually classical poems in stone. These were built in the seventh century by Narasimhavarman. Mamallapuram is also famous for the Shore Temple, which was a structural construction put up independently and not hewn out of any rock. Narasimhavarman II constructed the Kailasanath temple (eighth century) at Kanchipuram.
In the south; the Pallavas bridge the transition from rock architecture to structural stone temples. The credit for having initiated the rockarchitecture in the Pallava country must be given to the royal artist Mahendravarman I. Some of his architectural works are the cave temples on the hill at Mandagappattu, the five-celled cave temple at Pallavaram near Madras, the four cave temples at Mamandur and the Siva temple at Sivamangalam. However, the upper rock-cut cave at Tiruchirapalli is by far the best of Mahendra's creations. Besides these cave temples, dedicated to Siva, a few Vishnu cave temples were also excavated by him, the most important ones being the Mahendravishnugrlha at Mahendravadi and the Ranganatha temple at Srigavaram.
The architecture of the post-Mahendra period is found in the port town of Mamallapuram (or Mahabalipuram) at the mouth of the Palar river. The monuments at Mamallapuram can be grouped into (a) cut-in cave temples, (b) cut-out monolithic temples, and (c) structural temples. Famous among these temples are the Pancha Pandava cave temples and the Pancha Pandava rathas. 'The Descent of the Ganga' or ' Arjuna's Penance' are virtually classical poems in stone. These were built in the seventh century by Narasimhavarman. Mamallapuram is also famous for the Shore Temple, which was a structural construction put up independently and not hewn out of any rock. Narasimhavarman II constructed the Kailasanath temple (eighth century) at Kanchipuram.
THE PALLAVAS
THE PALLAVAS
The age of the Pallavas extended roughly from the third century AD to the end of the ninth century AD. The rise of the Pallava kingdom, north of the Chola kingdom of the Sangam Age, coincided with the decline of the Chola, Chera and Pandya kingdoms.
As to who the Pallavas were, there are many theories with regard to their origin: (i) they were descendants of Greek-Parthians who came in the wake of Alexander's invasion; (ii) they belonged to a local clan which grew powerful after the decline of the Andhra dynasty in the Deccan; (Hi) according to M.C. Ramanujam, the Pallavas originated from the Chola-Naga marriage; (iv) they were brahmans of the North whose occupation was service in the army; (v) they were originally robbers who gradually established their rule. However, their origin is not certain.
The Pallavas with their capital at Kanchi, south of Madras, gradually occupied most of the Chola and Chera territories. One of the early Pallava kings, Vishnugopa, was captured and then freed by Samudra Gupta about the middle of the fourth century AD. From some copper plates it is known that 16 kings ruled d~g the period 350-575. Inscriptions mention the names of several later Pallava monarchs whose dominions embraced not only Kanchi but considerable parts of the Telugu and Kanarese districts. The suzerainty of som:e of them was acknowledged by the early Gangas of eastern and southern Mysore and the early Kadambas who supplanted the Chutu-Satakarnis of Vaijayanti. The Lokavibhaga mentions that one of the Pallava kings who bore the name of Simhavarman ascended the throne in AD 436.
However, towards the end of the sixth century the Tamil land was divided betwee~ the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Simhavishnu. (575-600) extended the Pallava kingdom up to the river Kaveri. He is said to have vanquished the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras, as well as the ruler of Ceylon. He was a Vaishnava, and magnificent reliefs repre
senting the king and two of his consOfts have been discovered in the Varaha cave at Mamallapuram. His son and successor, Mahendravarman I (600-630), was defeated by the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, and with this started the great struggle between the Pallavas and their northern enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi, for the mastery of southern India. The struggle continued for several generations. Mahendravarman I was succeeded by his son, Narasimhavarman I (630-668), who is regarded as the most successful Pallava king. In 642 he occupied the Chalukyan capital, Vatapi, and probably killed Pulakesin II. This made the Pallavas the dominant power in the South. Narasimhavarman sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and placed a nominee of his own on the throne of that island. It was during his reign that the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan- Tsang is reported to have visited Kanchi.
The rivalry between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas was a constant factor in the history of South India in the seventh and eighth centuries AD. The Pallavas also had to fight the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III, invaded the Pallava kingdom and defeated its ruler Dantivarman (796-846). Soon Pallava power began to decline and was finally wiped out by Aditya I Chola (a king of the new emerging Chola dynasty), who defeated Aparajitavarman (879-897) and annexed the Pallava kingdom.
The period circa AD 300-850 marks the second historical phase in the south which was divided mainly between the Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas by the end of the sixth century. The first historical phase is marked by the appearance of numerous crafts, internal and external trade, widespread use of coins and a good number of towns. Trade, towns and coinage seem to have been in a state of decline in the second phase, which is distinguished by a large number of land grants made to the brahmans free of taxes. The grants suggest that many new areas were brought under cultivation and settlement. This period therefore saw far more expansion of agrarian economy.
Brahmanism now began to dominate. Buddhism lost its hold, and Jainism was confined to Kamataka. Kings began to perform Vedic sacrifices. Stone temples for Shiva and Vishnu began to be constructed. By the beginning of the second phase, South India had ceased to b~ the land of megaliths, and towards its end we notice the process
which eventually made it a land of temples. From about-~AD 400 om.vards, Sanskrit became the official language and most charters were composed in it. From the seventh century onwards, the Alvar saints (devotees of Vishnu) popularised the worship of Vishnu; however, their work is no longer in Sanskrit, but in Tamil. The Nayanars rendered a similar service to the cult of Siva. From the seventh century onwards, the cult of bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the south Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played an important role in its propagation.
The state made heavy demands on the labour and produce of the peasantry. Most of these demands are covered by the 18 types of immunities granted to the brahmans from the fourth century AD. Later, more and more demands were made on the peasantry. There were three types of villages now: ur (normal village inhabited by peasant castes); sabha (inhabited by brahmans); and nagaram (inhabited by traders and merchants).
Society was dominated by princes arid priests. The princes claimed the status of brahmans or kshatriyas though many of them were local clan chiefs. Below the princes and priests came the peasantry (divided into numerous castes). Possib)y most of them were called shudras in the brahmanical system.
-=.
The age of the Pallavas extended roughly from the third century AD to the end of the ninth century AD. The rise of the Pallava kingdom, north of the Chola kingdom of the Sangam Age, coincided with the decline of the Chola, Chera and Pandya kingdoms.
As to who the Pallavas were, there are many theories with regard to their origin: (i) they were descendants of Greek-Parthians who came in the wake of Alexander's invasion; (ii) they belonged to a local clan which grew powerful after the decline of the Andhra dynasty in the Deccan; (Hi) according to M.C. Ramanujam, the Pallavas originated from the Chola-Naga marriage; (iv) they were brahmans of the North whose occupation was service in the army; (v) they were originally robbers who gradually established their rule. However, their origin is not certain.
The Pallavas with their capital at Kanchi, south of Madras, gradually occupied most of the Chola and Chera territories. One of the early Pallava kings, Vishnugopa, was captured and then freed by Samudra Gupta about the middle of the fourth century AD. From some copper plates it is known that 16 kings ruled d~g the period 350-575. Inscriptions mention the names of several later Pallava monarchs whose dominions embraced not only Kanchi but considerable parts of the Telugu and Kanarese districts. The suzerainty of som:e of them was acknowledged by the early Gangas of eastern and southern Mysore and the early Kadambas who supplanted the Chutu-Satakarnis of Vaijayanti. The Lokavibhaga mentions that one of the Pallava kings who bore the name of Simhavarman ascended the throne in AD 436.
However, towards the end of the sixth century the Tamil land was divided betwee~ the Pallavas and the Pandyas. Simhavishnu. (575-600) extended the Pallava kingdom up to the river Kaveri. He is said to have vanquished the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras, as well as the ruler of Ceylon. He was a Vaishnava, and magnificent reliefs repre
senting the king and two of his consOfts have been discovered in the Varaha cave at Mamallapuram. His son and successor, Mahendravarman I (600-630), was defeated by the Chalukyan king, Pulakesin II, and with this started the great struggle between the Pallavas and their northern enemies, the Chalukyas of Vatapi, for the mastery of southern India. The struggle continued for several generations. Mahendravarman I was succeeded by his son, Narasimhavarman I (630-668), who is regarded as the most successful Pallava king. In 642 he occupied the Chalukyan capital, Vatapi, and probably killed Pulakesin II. This made the Pallavas the dominant power in the South. Narasimhavarman sent two naval expeditions to Ceylon and placed a nominee of his own on the throne of that island. It was during his reign that the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan- Tsang is reported to have visited Kanchi.
The rivalry between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas was a constant factor in the history of South India in the seventh and eighth centuries AD. The Pallavas also had to fight the Pandyas and the Rashtrakutas. The Rashtrakuta king, Govinda III, invaded the Pallava kingdom and defeated its ruler Dantivarman (796-846). Soon Pallava power began to decline and was finally wiped out by Aditya I Chola (a king of the new emerging Chola dynasty), who defeated Aparajitavarman (879-897) and annexed the Pallava kingdom.
The period circa AD 300-850 marks the second historical phase in the south which was divided mainly between the Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pandyas by the end of the sixth century. The first historical phase is marked by the appearance of numerous crafts, internal and external trade, widespread use of coins and a good number of towns. Trade, towns and coinage seem to have been in a state of decline in the second phase, which is distinguished by a large number of land grants made to the brahmans free of taxes. The grants suggest that many new areas were brought under cultivation and settlement. This period therefore saw far more expansion of agrarian economy.
Brahmanism now began to dominate. Buddhism lost its hold, and Jainism was confined to Kamataka. Kings began to perform Vedic sacrifices. Stone temples for Shiva and Vishnu began to be constructed. By the beginning of the second phase, South India had ceased to b~ the land of megaliths, and towards its end we notice the process
which eventually made it a land of temples. From about-~AD 400 om.vards, Sanskrit became the official language and most charters were composed in it. From the seventh century onwards, the Alvar saints (devotees of Vishnu) popularised the worship of Vishnu; however, their work is no longer in Sanskrit, but in Tamil. The Nayanars rendered a similar service to the cult of Siva. From the seventh century onwards, the cult of bhakti began to dominate the religious life of the south Indians, and the Alvars and Nayanars played an important role in its propagation.
The state made heavy demands on the labour and produce of the peasantry. Most of these demands are covered by the 18 types of immunities granted to the brahmans from the fourth century AD. Later, more and more demands were made on the peasantry. There were three types of villages now: ur (normal village inhabited by peasant castes); sabha (inhabited by brahmans); and nagaram (inhabited by traders and merchants).
Society was dominated by princes arid priests. The princes claimed the status of brahmans or kshatriyas though many of them were local clan chiefs. Below the princes and priests came the peasantry (divided into numerous castes). Possib)y most of them were called shudras in the brahmanical system.
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RELIGION
RELIGION
The upper strata of society came to. be influenced by the brahmanical religion. The kings performed Vedic sacrifices. But the chief .local god worshipped by the people of the hilly region was Murugan. The worship of Vishnu is also mentioned, though it may have been a later practice. Sects like Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika, etc. also appeared. The megalithic practice of providing for the dead continued. Cremation was introduced, but inhumation practised in the megalithic phase was not abandoned. The worship of 'hero stones' commemorating those who had performed great feats in battle was also present.
The upper strata of society came to. be influenced by the brahmanical religion. The kings performed Vedic sacrifices. But the chief .local god worshipped by the people of the hilly region was Murugan. The worship of Vishnu is also mentioned, though it may have been a later practice. Sects like Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivika, etc. also appeared. The megalithic practice of providing for the dead continued. Cremation was introduced, but inhumation practised in the megalithic phase was not abandoned. The worship of 'hero stones' commemorating those who had performed great feats in battle was also present.
POLITY and SOCIETY
POLITY In the Sangam Age, the most common form of government was hereditary monarchy. The king was the fountainhead of administration, but his powers were limited by five councils, namely, ministers (amaichchar); priests (purahitar); army chiefs (senapatiyar); envoys (dutar), and spies (atrar). The state maintained a rudimentary army. It consisted of chariots, drawn by oxen, or elephants, cavalry and infantry. The footmen and horsemen wore leather sandals for the protection of their feet. The entire kingdom was called mandalam. Below it was the nadu. The ur was a town. Pattanam was the coastal town and puhar was the harbour area. The village was the fundamental unit of administration and was looked after by the village panchayats known as manrums. A small village assembly (avai) met to transact local business.
SOCIETY The brahmans first appear in the south in the Sangam Age. They were pa.tronised by the princes. This helped them to apportion wealth and position in the society. They took wine and meat. The kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts. But the class of warriors was an important element in polity and society.
Captains of the army were invested with the title of enadi at a formal ceremony. Civil and military offices were held by vellalar or rich peasants. The ruling class was called arasar. Agricultural operations were generally carried on by members of the lowest class (kadaisiyar). The pariyars were agricultural labourers who also worked on animal skins and used them as mats. Thus, there were sharp social inequalities. However, acute caste distinctions were lacking. There was no prevalence of untouchability. Women's condition was comparatively good, though we have references to sati. The art of writing was doubtless known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era.
SOCIETY The brahmans first appear in the south in the Sangam Age. They were pa.tronised by the princes. This helped them to apportion wealth and position in the society. They took wine and meat. The kshatriyas and vaishyas appear as regular varnas in the Sangam texts. But the class of warriors was an important element in polity and society.
Captains of the army were invested with the title of enadi at a formal ceremony. Civil and military offices were held by vellalar or rich peasants. The ruling class was called arasar. Agricultural operations were generally carried on by members of the lowest class (kadaisiyar). The pariyars were agricultural labourers who also worked on animal skins and used them as mats. Thus, there were sharp social inequalities. However, acute caste distinctions were lacking. There was no prevalence of untouchability. Women's condition was comparatively good, though we have references to sati. The art of writing was doubtless known to the Tamils before the beginning of the Christian era.
ECONOMIC CONDITlON
ECONOMIC CONDITlON
The Sangam economy was mostly self-sufficing. rhe common pel'ple \1 ere most I} agriculturists or cowherds hunters and iishermeil Thew were also manufacture'rs or traders Indigenous mdustnes were iairly ad\'anced and whene\"l'r it was kIt that foreign workmen were specialists in a particular field, they were invited to settle down in Tdmilakam Next to agnculture shlppmg and weal ing were' tlj(' most important and wilh 1\ prMthl'\.1l rdIfS ThL sm,th\ was an important industrial fdctor) 1lI1l'rc c',porLs uf \Yell ere forged and repdlred.
Ldrpentrv was a very comnhm industry and was practised as a hereditary profl'SS1H1. Most of the trade WdS carned on by barter Paddy constituted the most commonly ,Kceptcd n1l'dlum ot Lxchange The. most common and possibly the most considerable smgle source of revenue was land tax called kllrtll Rl'vcnuc was also collected from feudatones and \var booty IV hich .\as known as mil.
Tamilakam carried on an exteIblVL trade wIth t )reign countries from very early tnnes. \\l' hnd large hoards of Roman gold cams of the Augustan Age 1I1 mdilY parts of South India.
These kingdoms were taIrlV nh rhev grel\, spices, especially pepper, and exported them tu the western world. They also supplied l\'ory, which II as valued by the 'Nest. The sed Yielded pearls and the'lr mull'S produced preclOus stones. BesIdes, ther produced muslIn and silk clotl ,)f very hIgh qUdlity. They had volummous trade w1th the. Greek or Hellelllsttc kmgdom, egvpt and ArabIa the Malay archipeldgo, and Chllla For the first tWU-.1pJ .a-hait centuries after Christ these kmgdoms earned on a lucratl\e trade with the Romans.
The Sangam economy was mostly self-sufficing. rhe common pel'ple \1 ere most I} agriculturists or cowherds hunters and iishermeil Thew were also manufacture'rs or traders Indigenous mdustnes were iairly ad\'anced and whene\"l'r it was kIt that foreign workmen were specialists in a particular field, they were invited to settle down in Tdmilakam Next to agnculture shlppmg and weal ing were' tlj(' most important and wilh 1\ prMthl'\.1l rdIfS ThL sm,th\ was an important industrial fdctor) 1lI1l'rc c',porLs uf \Yell ere forged and repdlred.
Ldrpentrv was a very comnhm industry and was practised as a hereditary profl'SS1H1. Most of the trade WdS carned on by barter Paddy constituted the most commonly ,Kceptcd n1l'dlum ot Lxchange The. most common and possibly the most considerable smgle source of revenue was land tax called kllrtll Rl'vcnuc was also collected from feudatones and \var booty IV hich .\as known as mil.
Tamilakam carried on an exteIblVL trade wIth t )reign countries from very early tnnes. \\l' hnd large hoards of Roman gold cams of the Augustan Age 1I1 mdilY parts of South India.
These kingdoms were taIrlV nh rhev grel\, spices, especially pepper, and exported them tu the western world. They also supplied l\'ory, which II as valued by the 'Nest. The sed Yielded pearls and the'lr mull'S produced preclOus stones. BesIdes, ther produced muslIn and silk clotl ,)f very hIgh qUdlity. They had volummous trade w1th the. Greek or Hellelllsttc kmgdom, egvpt and ArabIa the Malay archipeldgo, and Chllla For the first tWU-.1pJ .a-hait centuries after Christ these kmgdoms earned on a lucratl\e trade with the Romans.
THREE EARLY KINGDOMS
THREE EARLY KINGDOMS
The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenese, wI says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls and w ruled by a woman. The Pandyan territory occupied tl southernmost and south-eastern portion of the Indi, peninsula, and it roughly included the modern districts I TIrunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu;' its capit was at Madurai. The Sangam literature refers to the Pandya rulers, but it does not give any continuous account.
The kingdom profited from trade with the Roman empire an sent embassies to the Roman emperor, Augustus. Th brahrnans enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya king performed Vedic sacrifices.
ThE! Chola kingdom was situated to the north-east the territory of the pandyas, between the Pennar and th Velar rivers. The chief centre of power lay at Uraiyur, a plac famous for cotton trade. It seems that in the middle of th, second century Be, a Chola king named Elara conquere( Sri Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years.
The Chola were expelled with great difficulty by the Sinhalese nationa hero, King Dutugamunu (161-137 BC). A definite history 0 the Cholas begins in the second century AD with theh famous king Karikala, who founded Puhar (Kaveripattanam: and constructed 160 krn of embankment along the rive) Kaveri. Puhar, the Chola capital, was a great centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show it had a large dock.
Under Karikala~s successors, Chola power rapidly declined. Their capital, Kaveripattanam, was overwhelmed and destroyed. The Cheras and the Pandyas extended at the cost of the Cholas. The last remnants of Chola power were wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas from north (the Pallava capital was Kanchi). From the fourth to the ninth century AD the Cholas played only a marginal part in South Indian history.
The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It had flourishing trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris (identical with modern Cranganore) in the Chera country to protect their interests. It is also said that they built a temple of Augustus there. The greatest Chera king was Senguttu\ an, the Red or L,ond Chua He routed his rivals and established his COUSIn secure" lm the throne He is credited with having il1\ aded till' "'-'nrth anLl crossed the' Ganga. After the second century \[J the Clwrd power declined, and we hear no more of It untll the eIghth century AD.
The political historv of these three kingdoms is reflected in the continuous wars thev fought amongst themselves and also with Sri Lanka These I' l[S certaml) weakened them and caused trouble tn the people Very little IS known about what happenpu ,t the tip of the peninsuld aflL'r thl' pclipse of H'l .arl C!wras, Cholas and Pandyas Jhe only important event IS a n Vl)1t led hI the Kalabhras in the sixth Cl'ntUf\ It affected the Pallava~ as well as their neighbouring contemporary kIngdoms Thl Kalabhras overthrew innumerable kings and estabhshed their hold on the Tamil land They put an end to 1l1f BrahmedeYIl rights granted to the brahmans in numerous villages. Probably, the Kalabhras held Buddhist persuasIOns as they patrol1lsl'd Buddhist monastenes The Kalabhras revolt was so widespread that it could bl put down only through the joint efforts of the PanLi s 11ll' l'a]lavls a'ILi the Chera kings. This mdicaks that their rt~\ l,It had assumed wide proportions, and prod deed reperl:usslons outside the Tamil land Pl'rllaps tIll' re\'olt Ivas directed against the then existing social and puhtll.al order Ll 'South India.
The Pandyas are first mentioned by Megasthenese, wI says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls and w ruled by a woman. The Pandyan territory occupied tl southernmost and south-eastern portion of the Indi, peninsula, and it roughly included the modern districts I TIrunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu;' its capit was at Madurai. The Sangam literature refers to the Pandya rulers, but it does not give any continuous account.
The kingdom profited from trade with the Roman empire an sent embassies to the Roman emperor, Augustus. Th brahrnans enjoyed considerable influence, and the Pandya king performed Vedic sacrifices.
ThE! Chola kingdom was situated to the north-east the territory of the pandyas, between the Pennar and th Velar rivers. The chief centre of power lay at Uraiyur, a plac famous for cotton trade. It seems that in the middle of th, second century Be, a Chola king named Elara conquere( Sri Lanka and ruled over it for about 50 years.
The Chola were expelled with great difficulty by the Sinhalese nationa hero, King Dutugamunu (161-137 BC). A definite history 0 the Cholas begins in the second century AD with theh famous king Karikala, who founded Puhar (Kaveripattanam: and constructed 160 krn of embankment along the rive) Kaveri. Puhar, the Chola capital, was a great centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show it had a large dock.
Under Karikala~s successors, Chola power rapidly declined. Their capital, Kaveripattanam, was overwhelmed and destroyed. The Cheras and the Pandyas extended at the cost of the Cholas. The last remnants of Chola power were wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas from north (the Pallava capital was Kanchi). From the fourth to the ninth century AD the Cholas played only a marginal part in South Indian history.
The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It had flourishing trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Muziris (identical with modern Cranganore) in the Chera country to protect their interests. It is also said that they built a temple of Augustus there. The greatest Chera king was Senguttu\ an, the Red or L,ond Chua He routed his rivals and established his COUSIn secure" lm the throne He is credited with having il1\ aded till' "'-'nrth anLl crossed the' Ganga. After the second century \[J the Clwrd power declined, and we hear no more of It untll the eIghth century AD.
The political historv of these three kingdoms is reflected in the continuous wars thev fought amongst themselves and also with Sri Lanka These I' l[S certaml) weakened them and caused trouble tn the people Very little IS known about what happenpu ,t the tip of the peninsuld aflL'r thl' pclipse of H'l .arl C!wras, Cholas and Pandyas Jhe only important event IS a n Vl)1t led hI the Kalabhras in the sixth Cl'ntUf\ It affected the Pallava~ as well as their neighbouring contemporary kIngdoms Thl Kalabhras overthrew innumerable kings and estabhshed their hold on the Tamil land They put an end to 1l1f BrahmedeYIl rights granted to the brahmans in numerous villages. Probably, the Kalabhras held Buddhist persuasIOns as they patrol1lsl'd Buddhist monastenes The Kalabhras revolt was so widespread that it could bl put down only through the joint efforts of the PanLi s 11ll' l'a]lavls a'ILi the Chera kings. This mdicaks that their rt~\ l,It had assumed wide proportions, and prod deed reperl:usslons outside the Tamil land Pl'rllaps tIll' re\'olt Ivas directed against the then existing social and puhtll.al order Ll 'South India.
SANGAM AGE: LITERATURE
SANGAM AGE: LITERATURE
Though we have references to the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the inscriptions of Asoka and Kharavela, and in the Indika of Megasthenese, details about the life of the people of the deep south in the beginning of the historical period are gleaned from the Sangam literature. The earliest reference to the Sangams can be had from the introduction to the commentary on the Iraiyanar Agaporul. The Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage. Tradition has it that three Sangarns lasted for 9,900 years; they were attended by 8,598 poets, and had 197 Pandya kings as patrons. The available Sangam literature was, in fact, compiled in circa AD 300-600. But some portions of this literature look back to at least the second century AD. This literature can be roughly divided into two groups, narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are called Melkannakku (Eighteen major works) which comprise eight anthologies and ten idylls. The didactic works are called Kilkannakku (Eighteen minor works).
It is believed that the first of the three Sangams was attended by gods and legendary sages, and all its works have perished. Of the second, there survives only the early Tamil Grammar, Tolkappiyam. The poets of the third Sangam wrote the 'Eight Anthologies' (Ett~togai). Together the 'Eight Anthologies' make up a very large body of poetic literature, and contain well over 2,000 poems, ascribed to more than 200 authors. The eight anthologies are: (i) Narrinai-400 short poems on love; (ii) Kuruntogai-4oo smaller love poems; (iii) Aingurunuru-500 short erotic poems; (iv) Padirruppattu- a short collection of eight poems in praise of the king of Chera country; (v) Paripadal-twenty-four poems in praise of gods; (vi) Kalittogai-l50 love poems; (vii) Agananuru-400 love-lyrics; and (viii) Purananuru-400 poems in praise of kings. To them must be added 'The ten songs' (Pattuppattu), containing ten longer poems of similar style but of a rather later date.
Kilkannakku is largely gnomic and moralising in character, the two most famous in the collection being the Tirukkural and the Naladiyar; the former is sometimes caj the 'Bible of the Tamil Land'. The Naladiyar is more fori and literary in style, and contains verses of much merit i high ethical content.
By the 6th century AD Aryan influence had penetra the whole of the Tamil land, and its kings and chJ worshipped and supported the gods of Hinduism, Jaini and Buddhism. The indigenous style of poetry was rapi, being altered under the influence of Sanskrit, and TaJ poets took to writing long poems. The earliest and great of these is the Silappadikaram which, according to traditio is authored by Dangovadigal, a grandson of the great Chi king, Karikalan, who lived in the first or s~cond cent\. AD. This poem and Kamban's Ramayanam are looked up as the national epics of the Tamil people. A little later the Silappadikaram was composed its sequel Manimegal attributed to the poet Sattan of Madurai. A third Tamil eI is Jivakachintamani, written by a Jaina, TirutthakkadevaJ
Though we have references to the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas in the inscriptions of Asoka and Kharavela, and in the Indika of Megasthenese, details about the life of the people of the deep south in the beginning of the historical period are gleaned from the Sangam literature. The earliest reference to the Sangams can be had from the introduction to the commentary on the Iraiyanar Agaporul. The Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage. Tradition has it that three Sangarns lasted for 9,900 years; they were attended by 8,598 poets, and had 197 Pandya kings as patrons. The available Sangam literature was, in fact, compiled in circa AD 300-600. But some portions of this literature look back to at least the second century AD. This literature can be roughly divided into two groups, narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are called Melkannakku (Eighteen major works) which comprise eight anthologies and ten idylls. The didactic works are called Kilkannakku (Eighteen minor works).
It is believed that the first of the three Sangams was attended by gods and legendary sages, and all its works have perished. Of the second, there survives only the early Tamil Grammar, Tolkappiyam. The poets of the third Sangam wrote the 'Eight Anthologies' (Ett~togai). Together the 'Eight Anthologies' make up a very large body of poetic literature, and contain well over 2,000 poems, ascribed to more than 200 authors. The eight anthologies are: (i) Narrinai-400 short poems on love; (ii) Kuruntogai-4oo smaller love poems; (iii) Aingurunuru-500 short erotic poems; (iv) Padirruppattu- a short collection of eight poems in praise of the king of Chera country; (v) Paripadal-twenty-four poems in praise of gods; (vi) Kalittogai-l50 love poems; (vii) Agananuru-400 love-lyrics; and (viii) Purananuru-400 poems in praise of kings. To them must be added 'The ten songs' (Pattuppattu), containing ten longer poems of similar style but of a rather later date.
Kilkannakku is largely gnomic and moralising in character, the two most famous in the collection being the Tirukkural and the Naladiyar; the former is sometimes caj the 'Bible of the Tamil Land'. The Naladiyar is more fori and literary in style, and contains verses of much merit i high ethical content.
By the 6th century AD Aryan influence had penetra the whole of the Tamil land, and its kings and chJ worshipped and supported the gods of Hinduism, Jaini and Buddhism. The indigenous style of poetry was rapi, being altered under the influence of Sanskrit, and TaJ poets took to writing long poems. The earliest and great of these is the Silappadikaram which, according to traditio is authored by Dangovadigal, a grandson of the great Chi king, Karikalan, who lived in the first or s~cond cent\. AD. This poem and Kamban's Ramayanam are looked up as the national epics of the Tamil people. A little later the Silappadikaram was composed its sequel Manimegal attributed to the poet Sattan of Madurai. A third Tamil eI is Jivakachintamani, written by a Jaina, TirutthakkadevaJ
HISTORICAL EPOCH BEGINS
HISTORICAL EPOCH BEGINS
By the third century Be, the megalithic people moved into the fertile river basins and reclaimed marshy deltaic area. The new material culture of the north began to penetrate South India with the help of conquerors, traders, and Jaina, Buddhist and some brahman missionaries. Now the southern people came to practise wet paddy cultivation, founded numerous villages and towns, and carne to 'have social classes.
Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the south became important from the fourth century Be. The Pandyan country was known to Megasthenese who lived in Pataliputra. The earlier Sangam texts are familiar with the rivers Ganga and Son, and also with Pataliputra. Asoka's title 'dear to gods' was adopted by a Tamil chief. Eventually, many elements of Tamil culture also spread to the north, and in the brahrnanical texts the Kaveri carne to be regarded as one of the holy rivers in the country.
At the turn of the last century Be South India moved from pre-history into history, and literary records reflecting contemporary events are available. Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, speaks of defeating the Tamil confederacy, which was doubtless that of the 'three crowned kings', the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, and their feudatories.
By the third century Be, the megalithic people moved into the fertile river basins and reclaimed marshy deltaic area. The new material culture of the north began to penetrate South India with the help of conquerors, traders, and Jaina, Buddhist and some brahman missionaries. Now the southern people came to practise wet paddy cultivation, founded numerous villages and towns, and carne to 'have social classes.
Cultural and economic contacts between the north and the south became important from the fourth century Be. The Pandyan country was known to Megasthenese who lived in Pataliputra. The earlier Sangam texts are familiar with the rivers Ganga and Son, and also with Pataliputra. Asoka's title 'dear to gods' was adopted by a Tamil chief. Eventually, many elements of Tamil culture also spread to the north, and in the brahrnanical texts the Kaveri carne to be regarded as one of the holy rivers in the country.
At the turn of the last century Be South India moved from pre-history into history, and literary records reflecting contemporary events are available. Kharavela, the king of Kalinga, speaks of defeating the Tamil confederacy, which was doubtless that of the 'three crowned kings', the Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras, and their feudatories.
History of South India
PRE-HISTORICAL PERIOD
South India specifically denotes the region that lies to the south of the two rivers, Krishna and Tungabhadra. Even in the Palaeolithic Age this region was inhabited by human beings as shown by the stone industry found here. The people of this culture made core tools, especially fine handaxes, formed by striking off flakes from a large pebble, and they evidently had much better command over their material than the northern Palaeolithic men. This Madras Industry has affinities with similar core tool industries in Africa, Western Europe, and southern England, where it has been found in association with a more advanced type of human being-a true homo sapiens.
The people of the south also passed through the mesolithic and neolithic phases of the Stone Age. But generally r.20lithic settlements found in south India are not older than 2500 Be; in some parts they are as late as 1000 Be. The neolithic people of south India usually settled on the tops of the granite hills or on plateaus near the river banks. They used stone axes and stone blades. Fir baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept a large number of cattle, sheep and goats. They used rubbing stone querns, which indicate their acquaintance with the art of producing cereals. T. Narsipur, Paiyampalli, etc. are important neolithic sites of south India.
In south India, the neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the chalcolithic phase, and so these cultures are called neolithic-chalcolithic though no copper implements have been found. In fact, in south India the Stone Age was succeeded by the Iron Age.
The neolithic-chalcolithic amalgam was continued to about the middle of the first millennium Be. lt was then overlapped by the megalithic culture. Tradition speaks that a sage, named Agastya, of the later Vedic period in the north had crossed the Vindhyas to aryanise the south. The megalithic culture is characterised by the use of iron swords, spears, arrow-heads and axes, black-and-red pottery and frac
tional burials with lithic appendage.
The megalithic people are known not from their actual settlements, which are rare, but from their graves. These graves are called megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stone. Tools, pottery, etc., were buried in these graves along with skeletal remains of the dead, which show that people had belief in after-life.
The megaliths are found in all upland area of the peninsula, but their concentration seems to' be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu. In many cases this phase persisted even as late as the early centuries of the Christian era. The Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras (Cheras), mentioned in Asokan inscriptions were probably in the late megalithic phase of material culture. However, despite the use of iron, the megalithic people depended partly for settlement and burials on the hill slopes. Although they produced paddy and ragi, apparently the area of cultivable land used by them was very limited, and generally they did not settle on the plains or the lowlands due to the thick forest cover.
South India specifically denotes the region that lies to the south of the two rivers, Krishna and Tungabhadra. Even in the Palaeolithic Age this region was inhabited by human beings as shown by the stone industry found here. The people of this culture made core tools, especially fine handaxes, formed by striking off flakes from a large pebble, and they evidently had much better command over their material than the northern Palaeolithic men. This Madras Industry has affinities with similar core tool industries in Africa, Western Europe, and southern England, where it has been found in association with a more advanced type of human being-a true homo sapiens.
The people of the south also passed through the mesolithic and neolithic phases of the Stone Age. But generally r.20lithic settlements found in south India are not older than 2500 Be; in some parts they are as late as 1000 Be. The neolithic people of south India usually settled on the tops of the granite hills or on plateaus near the river banks. They used stone axes and stone blades. Fir baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept a large number of cattle, sheep and goats. They used rubbing stone querns, which indicate their acquaintance with the art of producing cereals. T. Narsipur, Paiyampalli, etc. are important neolithic sites of south India.
In south India, the neolithic phase imperceptibly faded into the chalcolithic phase, and so these cultures are called neolithic-chalcolithic though no copper implements have been found. In fact, in south India the Stone Age was succeeded by the Iron Age.
The neolithic-chalcolithic amalgam was continued to about the middle of the first millennium Be. lt was then overlapped by the megalithic culture. Tradition speaks that a sage, named Agastya, of the later Vedic period in the north had crossed the Vindhyas to aryanise the south. The megalithic culture is characterised by the use of iron swords, spears, arrow-heads and axes, black-and-red pottery and frac
tional burials with lithic appendage.
The megalithic people are known not from their actual settlements, which are rare, but from their graves. These graves are called megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stone. Tools, pottery, etc., were buried in these graves along with skeletal remains of the dead, which show that people had belief in after-life.
The megaliths are found in all upland area of the peninsula, but their concentration seems to' be in eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu. In many cases this phase persisted even as late as the early centuries of the Christian era. The Cholas, Pandyas and Keralaputras (Cheras), mentioned in Asokan inscriptions were probably in the late megalithic phase of material culture. However, despite the use of iron, the megalithic people depended partly for settlement and burials on the hill slopes. Although they produced paddy and ragi, apparently the area of cultivable land used by them was very limited, and generally they did not settle on the plains or the lowlands due to the thick forest cover.
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